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WRITING ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS

For most people, the true test of their critical thinking skills comes when they write an argumentative essay, one that takes a stand on an issue and uses logic and evidence to convince readers. When you write an argument, you follow the same process you use when you write any essay. However, because the purpose of an argument is to change the way readers think, you need to use some additional strategies to present your ideas to your audience.

A) Planning an Argumentative Essay 

1) Choosing a Debatable Topic 

Because an argumentative essay attempts to change the way people think, it must focus on a debatable topic, one about which reasonable people may disagree. Factual statements—verifiable assertions about which reasonable people do not disagree—are, therefore, not suitable as topics for argument. 

Fact: First-year students are not required to purchase a meal plan from the university. 

Debatable Topic: First-year students should be required to purchase a meal plan from the university. 

Your topic should be narrow enough so that you can write about it within your page limit. Remember, in your argumentative essay, you will have to develop your own ideas and present convincing support while also pointing out the strengths and weaknesses of opposing arguments. If your topic is too broad, you will not be able to treat it in enough detail. 

In addition, your topic should be interesting to you and to your readers. Keep in mind that some topics—such as “The Need for Gun Control” or “The Fairness of the Death Penalty”—have been discussed and written about so often that you may not be able to say anything new or interesting about them. Instead of relying on an overused topic, choose one that enables you to contribute something to the debate.

2) Developing an Argumentative Thesis

After you have chosen a topic, your next step is to state your position in an argumentative thesis, one that takes a strong stand. Properly worded, this thesis statement lays the foundation for the rest of your argument. One way to make sure that your thesis statement actually does take a stand is to formulate an antithesis, a statement that takes the opposite position. If you can state an antithesis, your thesis statement takes a stand. 

Thesis Statement:  Term limits would improve government by bringing people with fresh ideas into office every few years. 

Antithesis: Term limits would harm government because elected officials would always be inexperienced. 

To make sure your argumentative thesis is effective, ask the following questions: 

  • Is your thesis one with which reasonable people would disagree? 
  • Can you formulate an antithesis? 
  • Can your thesis be supported by evidence? 
  • Does your thesis make clear to readers what position you are taking?

3) Defining Your Terms 

You should always define the key terms you use in your argument— especially those you use in your thesis statement. After all, the soundness of an entire argument may hinge on the definition of a word that may mean one thing to one person and another thing to someone else. For example, in the United States, democratic elections involve the selection of government officials by popular vote; in other countries, the word democratic may be used to describe elections in which only one candidate is running or in which all candidates represent the same party. For this reason, if your argument hinges on a key term like democratic, you should make sure that your readers know exactly what you mean.

Be careful to use precise language in your thesis statement. Avoid vague and judgmental words, such as wrong, bad, good, right, and immoral. 

Vague: Censorship of the Internet would be wrong. 

Clearer: Censorship of the Internet would unfairly limit free speech.

4) Considering Your Audience 

As you plan your essay, keep a specific audience in mind. Are your readers unbiased observers or people deeply concerned about the issue you plan to discuss? Can they be cast in a specific role—concerned parents, victims of discrimination, irate consumers—or are they so diverse that they cannot be categorized? 

Always assume that your audience will question your assumptions. Even if your readers are sympathetic to your position, you cannot assume that they will accept your ideas without question; they will still need to see that your argument is logical and that your evidence is solid. More skeptical readers will need reassurance that you understand their concerns and that you concede some of their points. However, no matter what you do, you may never be able to convince hostile readers that your conclusion is valid. The best you can hope for is that these readers will acknowledge the strengths of your argument even if they reject your conclusion.

5) Refuting Opposing Arguments 

As you develop your argument, you should briefly summarize and then refute—that is, disprove—opposing arguments by showing that they are untrue, unfair, illogical, unimportant, or irrelevant. (If an opponent’s position is so strong that it cannot be refuted, concede the point, and then identify its limitations.) In the following paragraph, a student refutes the argument that Sea World is justified in keeping whales in captivity. 

Of course, some will say that Sea World wants to capture only a few whales, as George Will points out in his commentary in Newsweek. Unfortunately, Will downplays the fact that Sea World wants to capture a hundred whales, not just “a few.” And, after releasing ninety of these whales, Sea World intends to keep ten for “further work.” At hearings in Seattle last week, several noted marine biologists went on record as condemning Sea World’s research program.

NOTE: When you acknowledge an opposing view, be careful not to distort or oversimplify it. This tactic, known as creating a straw man, can seriously undermine your credibility.

Computer Tip For Refuting Opposing Arguments 

As you formulate an argument, you can use your computer to create a table or chart that organizes all the arguments against your position. Using the Table menu in your word-processing program, create a two column table. Label the first column “Opposing Arguments” and the second column “Refutations.” List the arguments against your position in the first column and your refutations of these arguments in the second column. When you are finished, delete the weakest opposing arguments. When you write your essay, discuss only those opposing arguments and refutations that remain.

EXERCISE 1

Choose one of the following five statements, and list the arguments in favor of it. Then, list the arguments against it. Finally, choose one position (pro or con), and write a paragraph or two supporting it. Be sure to refute the arguments against your position. 

  1. Public school students who participate in extracurricular activities should have to submit to random drug tests. 
  2. The federal government should limit the amount of violence shown on television.
  3. A couple applying for a marriage license should be required to take AIDS tests.
  4. Retirees making more than $50,000 a year should not be eligible for Social Security benefits. 
  5. Colleges and universities should provide free daycare for students’ children.

B) Using Evidence Effectively

1) Supporting Your Argument 

Most arguments are built on assertions—statements that you make about a debatable topic—backed by evidence—supporting information, in the form of examples, statistics, or expert opinion. If, for instance, you asserted that law-enforcement officials are winning the war against violent crime, you could then support this assertion by referring to a government report stating that violent crime—especially murder—has dramatically decreased during the past decade. This report would be one piece of persuasive evidence. 

Only assertions that are self-evident (“All human beings are mortal”), true by definition (2 + 2 = 4), or factual (“The Atlantic Ocean separates England and the United States”) need no proof. All other kinds of assertions require support. 

NOTE: Remember that you can never prove a thesis conclusively—if you did, there would be no argument. The best you can do is to provide enough evidence to establish a high probability that your thesis is reasonable or valid.

2) Establishing Credibility 

Clear reasoning, compelling evidence, and strong refutations go a long way toward making an argument solid. But these elements in themselves are not sufficient to create a convincing argument. In order to convince readers, you have to satisfy them that you are someone they should listen to—in other words, that you have credibility. 

Some people, of course, bring credibility with them every time they speak. When a Nobel Prize winner in physics makes a speech about the need to control proliferation of nuclear weapons, we assume that he or she speaks with authority. But most people do not have this kind of credibility. When you write an argument, you must work to establish your credibility by establishing common ground, demonstrating knowledge, maintaining a reasonable tone, and presenting yourself as someone worth listening to.

Establishing Common Ground. When you write an argument, it is tempting to go on the attack, emphasizing the differences between your position and those of your opponents. Writers of effective arguments, however, know they can gain a greater advantage by establishing common ground between their opponents and themselves. 

One way to establish common ground is to use the techniques of Rogerian argument. According to the psychologist Carl Rogers, you should think of the members of your audience as colleagues with whom you must collaborate to find solutions to problems. Instead of verbally assaulting them, you should emphasize points of agreement. In this way, rather than taking a confrontational stance, you establish common ground and work toward a resolution of the problem you are discussing.

Demonstrating Knowledge.  Including relevant personal experiences in your argumentative essay can show readers that you know a lot about your subject; demonstrating this kind of knowledge gives you authority. For example, describing what you observed at a National Rifle Association convention can give you authority in an essay arguing for (or against) gun control. 

You can also establish credibility by showing you have done research into a subject. By referring to important sources of information and by providing accurate documentation for your information, you show readers that you have done the necessary background reading. Including references to a range of sources—not just one— suggests that you have a balanced knowledge of your subject. However, questionable sources, inaccurate (or missing) documentation, and factual errors can undermine an argument. For many readers, an undocumented quotation or even an incorrect date can call an entire argument into question.

Maintaining a Reasonable Tone.  Your tone is almost as important as the information you convey. Talk to your readers, not at them. If you lecture your readers or appear to talk down to them, you will alienate them. Remember that readers are more likely to respond to a writer who is conciliatory than to one who is strident or insulting. 

As you write your essay, use moderate language, and qualify your statements so that they seem reasonable. Try to avoid words and phrases such as never, all, and in every case, which can make your claims seem exaggerated and unrealistic. The statement “Euthanasia is never acceptable,” for example, leaves you no room for compromise. A more conciliatory statement might be “In cases of extreme suffering, a patient’s desire for death is certainly understandable, but in most cases, the moral, social, and legal implications of euthanasia make it unacceptable.”

Presenting Yourself as Someone Worth Listening To. When you write an argument, you should make sure you present yourself as someone your readers will want to listen to. Present your argument in positive and forceful terms, and don’t apologize for your views. For example, do not rely on phrases—such as “In my opinion” and “It seems to me”—that undercut your credibility. Be consistent, and be careful not to contradict yourself. Finally, limit your use of the first person (“I”), and avoid slang and colloquialisms.

3) Being Fair 

Argument promotes one point of view, so it is seldom objective. However, college writing requires that you stay within the bounds of fairness and avoid bias. To be sure that the support for your argument is not misleading or distorted, you should take the following steps.

Avoid Distorting Evidence.  You distort evidence when you misrepresent it. Writers sometimes intentionally misrepresent their opponents’ views by exaggerating them and then attacking this extreme position. For example, a senator of a northeastern state proposed requiring unmarried mothers receiving welfare to identify their children’s fathers and to supply information about them. Instead of challenging this proposal directly, a critic distorted the senator’s position and attacked it unfairly. 

What is the senator’s next idea in his headlong rush to embrace the extreme right-wing position? A program of tattoos for welfare mothers? A badge sewn on to their clothing identifying them as welfare recipients? Creation of colonies in which welfare recipients would be forced to live like lepers? How about an involuntary relocation program into concentration camps?

Avoid Quoting Out of Context.  A writer or speaker quotes out of context by taking someone’s words from their original setting and using them in another. When you select certain statements and ignore others, you can change the meaning of what someone has said or suggested. 

Mr. N, Township Resident: I don’t know why you are opposing the new highway. According to your own statements, the highway will increase land values and bring more business into the area. 

Ms. L, Township Supervisor: I think you should look at my statements more carefully. I have a copy of the paper that printed my interview, and what I said was [reading]: “The highway will increase land values a bit and bring some business to the area. But at what cost? One hundred and fifty families will be displaced, and the highway will divide our township in half.” My comments were not meant to support the new highway but to underscore the problems that its construction will cause.

Avoid Slanting. You slant information when you select only information that supports your case and ignore information that does not. Slanting also occurs when you use inflammatory language to create bias. For example, a national magazine slanted its information when it described a person accused of a crime as “a hulk of a man who looks as if he could burn out somebody’s eyes with a propane torch.” Although one-sided presentations frequently appear in tabloids and some popular magazines, you should avoid such distortions in your argumentative essays.

Avoid Using Unfair Appeals.  Traditionally, writers of arguments use three kinds of appeals to influence readers: logical appeals address an audience’s sense of reason; emotional appeals play on the emotions of a reader; and ethical appeals call the reader’s attention to the credibility of the writer. 

Problems arise when these appeals are used unfairly. For example, writers can use fallacies to fool readers into thinking that a conclusion is logical when it is not. Writers can also employ inappropriate emotional appeals—to prejudice or fear, for example—to influence readers. And finally, writers can unfairly use their credentials in one area of expertise to bolster their stature in another area that they are not qualified to discuss.

C) Organizing an Argumentative Essay

In its simplest form, an argument consists of a thesis statement and supporting evidence. However, argumentative essays frequently use inductive and deductive reasoning and other specialized strategies to win audience approval and overcome potential opposition.

ELEMENTS OF AN ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

Introduction

The introduction of your argumentative essay orients your readers to your subject. Here you can show how your subject concerns your audience, establish common ground with your readers, and perhaps explain how your subject has been misunderstood.

Thesis Statement 

Your thesis statement can appear anywhere in your argumentative essay. Most often, you state your thesis in your introduction. However, if you are presenting a highly controversial argument—one to which you believe your readers might react negatively—you may postpone stating your thesis until later in your essay.

Background 

In this section, you can briefly present a narrative of past events, an overview of others’ opinions on the issue, definitions of key terms, or a review of basic facts.

Arguments in Support of Your Thesis 

Begin with your weakest argument, and work up to your strongest. If all your arguments are equally strong, you might begin with those with which your readers are already familiar and therefore perhaps more likely to accept.

Refutation of Opposing Arguments 

If the opposing arguments are relatively weak, summarize and refute them after you have made your case. However, if the opposing arguments are strong, concede their strengths and then discuss their limitations before you present your own arguments.

Conclusion 

Often, the conclusion restates the major arguments in support of your thesis. Your conclusion can also summarize key points, restate your thesis, remind readers of the weaknesses of opposing arguments, or underscore the logic of your position. Many writers like to end their arguments with a strong last line, such as a quotation or a statement that sums up the argument.

D) Revising an Argumentative Essay

When you revise your argumentative essay, you use the same strategies you use for any essay. In addition, you concentrate on some specific concerns, which are listed in the following checklist.

CHECKLIST ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS 

  • Is your topic debatable? 
  • Does your essay have an argumentative thesis? 
  • Have you defined the key terms you use in your argument? 
  • Have you considered the opinions, attitudes, and values of your audience? 
  • Have you summarized and refuted opposing arguments? 
  • Have you supported your assertions with evidence?
  • Have you used relevant visuals to strengthen your argument? 
  • Have you documented all information that is not your own? 
  • Have you established your credibility? 
  • Have you been fair? Have you avoided logical fallacies? 
  • Have you constructed your argumentative essay logically? 
  • Have you provided your readers with enough background information? 
  • Have you presented your points clearly and organized them logically? 
  • Have you written an interesting introduction and a strong conclusion?

USING TRANSITIONS IN ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS 

Argumentative essays should include transitional words and phrases to indicate which paragraphs are arguments in support of the thesis, which are refutations of arguments that oppose the thesis, and which are conclusions. 

Arguments in support of thesis:

accordingly, because, for example, for instance, in general, given, generally, since

Refutations

although, admittedly, certainly, despite, granted, in all fairness, naturally, nonetheless, of course 

Conclusions

all things considered, as a result, in conclusion, in summary, therefore, thus

Adapted from the online PDF of the following out-of-print handbook:

Kirszner, Lauri and Stephen Mandell. The Holt Handbook. 6th ed., Thomson-Heinle, 2002.

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July 1, 2023
    

An educator’s daily lesson plan is the most detailed and updated guide that they have to facilitate learning in their classroom. In essence, lesson planning is the educator’s opportunity to decide, in advance what curriculum to introduce, the instructional delivery method they will use, and how intended objectives will be assessed. After reading chapter 8, perform these two tasks.

  • Jones, Jones, and Vermette (2011) did a three year study of novice educators’ lesson planning practices to determine if patterns of common blunders may exist in their design process. 
    • Discuss the six most common pitfalls that research uncovered that novice educators make when planning lessons.

8.5 Common Lesson-Planning Pitfalls

We will end the chapter by discussing some of the most common pitfalls that teachers make when designing lesson plans.These pitfalls apply to all the lesson plan formats discussed in this chapter. Jones, Jones, and Vermette (2011) conducted athree-year study examining novice teachers’ lesson planning and implementation to determine the six most common lesson-planning blunders. Knowing what the most common lesson plan impediments are will help you navigate around them. You maynotice that these are similar to the pitfalls to writing instructional objectives, first described in Chapter 3; many of the sameprinciples apply.

Unclear Learning Objective

This lesson-planning misstep happens when teachers focus on what content they will cover in the lesson instead of focusing onthe learning outcomes the students will have because of exposure to that content. Teachers who focus on learning outcomesassure that the lesson is learning-centered, and eliminate the difficulties of determining whether the lesson is teacher-centeredor student-centered. How will you know what you want students to learn? It is stated in your instructional objectives. Toovercome this pitfall, write the learning outcome from the student’s perspective. For example, “At the end of this lesson, I canidentify five types of carbohydrates” or “I can compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.”

Assessment of Understanding Not Administered

New teachers, overwhelmed with classroom-management issues, administration tasks, and extensive content to cover,sometime continue teaching without ever stopping to see what (if anything) students have learned. In many cases, discussion isthe sole way to evaluate student thinking. While this strategy is a useful formative assessment, without any tangible evidence ofstudent learning, there is no real accountability or indication that students have learned anything at all. To overcome thispitfall, consider authentic assessment as a strategy so that students create a learning product that is evidenced in an active andvisible process that helps students link content learned to the intended learning objectives.

Failure to Collect Multiple Formative Assessments During Lesson

To provide clues to students’ current level of understanding, teachers should use multiple means of collecting informationabout students’ thinking throughout the lesson. They can then use this information to differentiate instruction to meet learners’exact needs. A strong focus on evidence creation during the lesson will help document student achievement.

To overcome this pitfall, consider interspersing throughout the lesson plan Wiggins and McTighe’s (2011) deconstruction ofunderstanding into six facets: explain, interpret, apply, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge.

Assessment Fails to Match the Learning Objective

By mismatching the assessment of learning with the instructional objective, you will never know if the objective was met. Thispitfall can be tricky because teachers assume that students who are engaged in the assigned task will automatically gain thecognitive attribute intended.

To overcome this pitfall, consider using learning targets and the backward design process (Stiggins, 2008; Wiggins & McTighe,2011) and begin lesson planning with “identify desired results.” Rather than beginning lesson planning with a set of topics youneed to cover and then, after the fact, creating an assessment to match the topics, begin with the walk-away knowledge, skills,or dispositions you want students to have and then schedule activities that will lead to these take-aways. (For more informationon the backward planning process, see Chapter 4.)

Lesson Plan Lacks an Engaging Start

Beginning a lesson with a quick “hook” with little or no meaningful student engagement leads to students being frustrated andunfocused rather than motivated to learn. Failure to start the lesson effectively leads to classroom-management issues,confusion, and off-task behaviors.

To overcome this pitfall, take the beginning of the lesson time to create conditions in which the students can play with ideas tohelp assimilate new concepts into their existing schema. This activity may take a longer or shorter amount of time dependingon the discovery task, level of students’ motivation, or depth of prior knowledge.

Students Are Passive Recipients of Knowledge

Lessons that only involve PowerPoint presentations or teacher lectures in which students sit quietly and listen have beenshown to be ineffective. Likewise, lessons that focus on recollection of facts rather than a negotiation of conceptual meaning arealso ineffective for enduring understanding. Plan instructional strategies that are student-centered and learning oriented.

The traditional “passive learner” paradigm is easier to overcome if preservice teachers are able to experience effective teachingduring their own K–16 experiences.

 

CONSIDER THIS

What do you think is the most damaging lesson-planning pitfall? Why?

 

 

 

 

 

  • Read Valerie’s case from the classroom found in section 8.6 in your textbook. 
    • Answer question number three: “Valerie claims to use three different planning models: direct instruction, inquiry based (specifically, the 5E model), and social interaction, depending on the day, the objective, and the activity. Critique her match of models with the lesson purpose. Offer your own examples of each of these models for a curricular area of your choice.”  (Hansen et al., 2015)

chapter 8.6

From the Desk of: Valerie

March 7

Hello Dr. Z.—

So, you want to know about lesson planning? Well, let me tell you—it isn’t always as easy or as logical as the textbooksmake it out to be. This is something I have had to learn the hard way—because with 35 squirmy eighth graders in eachof my science classes, many whose hormones are rising here in the spring and all—well, you just can’t afford to come toschool unprepared—and live to tell about it, that is. I can’t always think in the “heat of the battle.” I have to have therelevant vocabulary terms listed out, and at least the words I am going to use to explain them, or I end up getting my“mords wixed up!” Then I can relax and let the planned activities just flow. But, not just any activity—it has to relate towhat we are doing in science or they start to just “blow it off.”

So, I find lesson planning to be difficult, but necessary. I work mainly from the eighth-grade science syllabus and the unitplans that we put together with other science teachers from the district last fall. I developed a lesson plan form that Isaved as a template in Word, so it comes up each time as a blank document and it automatically saves to a differentname without locking up my original form. I plan for one week at a time—sometimes two, if I have the time, and try tomake sure I know what I am doing in general the next week by Friday of each week. That way I can enjoy the weekendmore, and not have that feeling of dread that used to hit on Sunday afternoon. Next year should be easier, since I willhave most of the details already developed, and can modify the lessons depending on the students and what I have towork with, instead of starting from scratch.

The models for lesson planning that we learned at university are useful, and I have tweaked them a bit to make themrelevant to my own teaching context. I know (and have been taught over and over again) that one plans from theobjectives and the assessment, and then develops the activities to match. While this works to keep me focused, I stillthink about the activity, or how to teach the objective, while planning the assessment, because for me it really is arecursive process. Like, how can you unpack a standard if you have no idea about what the student could be doing todemonstrate that understanding?

Another thing that makes planning easier for me is to get a weekly routine that I can use to structure the learningobjectives and assessment around. For example, Monday I introduce a new concept (or bring in new informationregarding a concept from the week before), and plan for a demonstration, some lecture, some discussion, and a jigsawgroup or two. So the learning objectives and assessments for that day focus on an NGSS disciplinary core idea, and theability to explain the concept in one’s own words. For example, the core idea for these next two weeks is:

Plate tectonics is the unifying theory that explains the past and current movements of the rocks at Earth’s surfaceand provides a framework for understanding its geologic history. (ESS2.B Grade 8 GBE)

My objective for Monday’s lesson was for the students to explain the terms fault and plate boundaries, to define thevarious types of faults, normal, reverse, and strike slip, and the various types of plate boundaries, divergent, convergent,and transform. On Tuesday, I scheduled a lab activity that investigated the core idea presented on Monday. So theobjectives and assessments related to science and engineering practices (from the NGSS) applied to the topic, likeconstructing explanations. We took pieces of foam blocks and cut them to represent the types of faults and faultboundaries, and discussed concepts such as extension, moving apart, down-dropped blocks, and devised explanations ofwhat happens when these faults move, as in an earthquake. Wednesdays are research days. We took the essentialquestions from this part of the unit, the observations from the lab reports, and working in teams (usually four)formulated a specific question and organized an Internet research strategy—using the laptop carts that are reserved onthat day. We started with a site that allowed the students to chart the movement of land masses to better understandplate tectonics, and then they developed their own questions to research from there. Thursday is model-planning day—the teams report to each other on the results of their research and develop one visual model (2D or 3D) per team ofwhat they found in their research. The models must depict the cross-cutting concepts associated with that standard. Forexample, in the current unit (plate tectonics), the concepts they must show are either a pattern (like a numericalrelationship) or a scale (some concepts are too small to see, and others occur too slowly; they must show what scalethey are using). On Friday, each team presents the visual model and everyone submits an individually written report onwhat was learned. When planning, I match up the objectives and assessment strategies to the activity type, and thenschedule that objective for the corresponding day.

Is this the best way to do it? I don’t know. In an ideal world, Internet research and labs would be more spontaneous,driven by “teachable moments” as they arise. But I can only schedule a set of laptops one day per week—they are sharedwith other classrooms. And the lab is only available one day per week—so I have to plan carefully. Not only that—I havetwo students with disabilities in the fourth-period class, and several students throughout the day who struggleacademically, and at least ten students scattered among the classes who are eager, interested, and clearly ready foradvanced work. So, within these activity-scheduled days, I can plan for some predictable differences in advance. Forinstance, I always post my notes, PowerPoints, video clips, and websites that explain the same or similar concepts as thebook chapter to Edmodo, our course LMS, so the students can view them at home ahead of time or after class. Thosewho are still learning academic English or who read slowly can use computer screen readers to go over the informationone more time. On Wednesday, research day, students who want to explore advanced concepts can do so. And I try tomix the groups up so that each is as balanced as possible with each group having a mix of abilities.

So what planning model do I use? That also depends on the day, the objective, and the activity. I think that in eighth-grade science, given the resources and schedule that I have to work with, disciplinary core ideas (from the NGSS) arebest introduced with a direct-instruction approach. This seems to be the most efficient for me. And it matches what Iknow about teaching content—you have to start somewhere with science concepts—read, or listen, or view a video clip.We still explore and wonder using this type of lesson—I always have them develop a prediction or pose questions. Nowthat’s a hard one. They are so accustomed to trying to figure out correct answers, it is really hard for them to ask arelevant question. On Tuesday and Wednesday, I definitely use a 5E plan, since it fits so well with science, and it is moreof an inquiry-based approach. The students are getting used to it; at first, they just wanted me to tell them the answers. Iguess I use a social-interaction approach on Thursday and Friday, since they are primarily working in groups and haveto figure out how to report their findings.

Gotta go—team planning meeting in five minutes—see you Friday and we will catch up.

—Valerie

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz

March 14

This week’s post from Valerie illustrates the thought processes that many novice teachers go through when planning.While she understands the value of lesson planning and the confidence it brings to implementation, she is surprised byhow much time it takes. Furthermore, when asked to analyze how she plans, she realizes that the linear processexplained in most textbooks is only part of the story. Like many other new teachers, Valerie plans with the content andan activity in mind, and then adapts it to make sure it aligns with the objective and assessment systems. At this point inher development as a teacher, she still has to make those connections explicit.

I noticed how her organizational schedule is really an attempt to reduce the cognitive load of planning. Given thecomplexities of the content, the student needs, and the limitations on resources, she is developing manageablestrategies that meet the needs of most of her students at the same time. The routines that she developed provide alogical structure for those strategies and allow her to concentrate on delivering the curriculum.

One place that has been especially helpful in instructional planning is an activity types taxonomy,http://activitytypes.wmwikis.net/HOME. This site lists three basic activity types for science: conceptual knowledgebuilding (such as read, attend to a demonstration, or discuss), procedural knowledge (such as practice, prepare, recorddata, or collect samples), and knowledge expression (such as write a report, create an image, develop a model, ordevelop a concept map). This site also offers a taxonomy of activity types for other subject areas, such as literacy,mathematics, music, science, social studies, visual arts—and more. A number of teachers have used this site to helpfocus their thinking in planning. In most cases, well-defined objectives and assessments can be interpreted as aligning toone or more of these activity types, and the suggestions can spark teacher thinking on appropriate activities.

I followed up with Valerie regarding the team meeting she was heading to. Her team has decided that next year, theywant to develop at least one thematic and interdisciplinary unit in the fall, and plan for one project-based unit in thespring. To help with the planning, they have decided to embark on a lesson study among the members of the team; theeighth-grade teachers of math, science, English, social studies, technology, and art. The purpose of the lesson study is tolearn something about the content of each other’s classes, and to identify places where the content could be integratedfor a theme or a project. For example, Valerie requires that the visual models her students produce use cross-cuttingconcepts identified in the standards, and she makes sure that she tries to connect to the state Common Core Standardsin ELA and Math as much as possible. She doesn’t always see the connections that could be made, however. In the platetectonics series of lesson plans, for example, visual models could be explained by using variables in a mathematicalproblem. The math teacher readily sees those connections, while it might take Valerie a bit longer, if at all, to discoverand add them to her lesson. So, the team is embarking on a lesson study to familiarize themselves with each other’scurriculum and ways of planning and structuring a lesson, in the hopes of generating some ideas for their goals for thefollowing year. And, guess who is presenting first!

—Celina Zwijacz, Ph.D.

 

Discussion Questions

    1. Visit the learning activity types wiki provided by the College of William and Mary School of Education, and reviewa set of activity types for one of the subject areas listed. (Go to http://activitytypes.wmwikis.net/HOME.) Discusspossible connections between this taxonomy of activities and the objectives and assessments of any plausible dailylesson plan. What descriptions would need to be added to assure an alignment of an activity with objective andassessment?

    1. The lesson-planning process described in this chapter is linear, but the process that Valerie and Dr. Z. speak ofdescribes a more recursive thought and action. What are your thoughts as you plan a lesson? Describe your mentalprocesses.

  1. Valerie claims to use three different planning models: direct instruction, inquiry based (specifically, the 5E model),and social interaction, depending on the day, the objective, and the activity. Critique her match of models with thelesson purpose. Offer your own examples of each of these models for a curricular area of your choice.

 

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July 1, 2023
    

An educator’s daily lesson plan is the most detailed and updated guide that they have to facilitate learning in their classroom. In essence, lesson planning is the educator’s opportunity to decide, in advance what curriculum to introduce, the instructional delivery method they will use, and how intended objectives will be assessed. After reading chapter 8, perform these two tasks.

  • Jones, Jones, and Vermette (2011) did a three year study of novice educators’ lesson planning practices to determine if patterns of common blunders may exist in their design process. 
    • Discuss the six most common pitfalls that research uncovered that novice educators make when planning lessons.

8.5 Common Lesson-Planning Pitfalls

We will end the chapter by discussing some of the most common pitfalls that teachers make when designing lesson plans.These pitfalls apply to all the lesson plan formats discussed in this chapter. Jones, Jones, and Vermette (2011) conducted athree-year study examining novice teachers’ lesson planning and implementation to determine the six most common lesson-planning blunders. Knowing what the most common lesson plan impediments are will help you navigate around them. You maynotice that these are similar to the pitfalls to writing instructional objectives, first described in Chapter 3; many of the sameprinciples apply.

Unclear Learning Objective

This lesson-planning misstep happens when teachers focus on what content they will cover in the lesson instead of focusing onthe learning outcomes the students will have because of exposure to that content. Teachers who focus on learning outcomesassure that the lesson is learning-centered, and eliminate the difficulties of determining whether the lesson is teacher-centeredor student-centered. How will you know what you want students to learn? It is stated in your instructional objectives. Toovercome this pitfall, write the learning outcome from the student’s perspective. For example, “At the end of this lesson, I canidentify five types of carbohydrates” or “I can compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.”

Assessment of Understanding Not Administered

New teachers, overwhelmed with classroom-management issues, administration tasks, and extensive content to cover,sometime continue teaching without ever stopping to see what (if anything) students have learned. In many cases, discussion isthe sole way to evaluate student thinking. While this strategy is a useful formative assessment, without any tangible evidence ofstudent learning, there is no real accountability or indication that students have learned anything at all. To overcome thispitfall, consider authentic assessment as a strategy so that students create a learning product that is evidenced in an active andvisible process that helps students link content learned to the intended learning objectives.

Failure to Collect Multiple Formative Assessments During Lesson

To provide clues to students’ current level of understanding, teachers should use multiple means of collecting informationabout students’ thinking throughout the lesson. They can then use this information to differentiate instruction to meet learners’exact needs. A strong focus on evidence creation during the lesson will help document student achievement.

To overcome this pitfall, consider interspersing throughout the lesson plan Wiggins and McTighe’s (2011) deconstruction ofunderstanding into six facets: explain, interpret, apply, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge.

Assessment Fails to Match the Learning Objective

By mismatching the assessment of learning with the instructional objective, you will never know if the objective was met. Thispitfall can be tricky because teachers assume that students who are engaged in the assigned task will automatically gain thecognitive attribute intended.

To overcome this pitfall, consider using learning targets and the backward design process (Stiggins, 2008; Wiggins & McTighe,2011) and begin lesson planning with “identify desired results.” Rather than beginning lesson planning with a set of topics youneed to cover and then, after the fact, creating an assessment to match the topics, begin with the walk-away knowledge, skills,or dispositions you want students to have and then schedule activities that will lead to these take-aways. (For more informationon the backward planning process, see Chapter 4.)

Lesson Plan Lacks an Engaging Start

Beginning a lesson with a quick “hook” with little or no meaningful student engagement leads to students being frustrated andunfocused rather than motivated to learn. Failure to start the lesson effectively leads to classroom-management issues,confusion, and off-task behaviors.

To overcome this pitfall, take the beginning of the lesson time to create conditions in which the students can play with ideas tohelp assimilate new concepts into their existing schema. This activity may take a longer or shorter amount of time dependingon the discovery task, level of students’ motivation, or depth of prior knowledge.

Students Are Passive Recipients of Knowledge

Lessons that only involve PowerPoint presentations or teacher lectures in which students sit quietly and listen have beenshown to be ineffective. Likewise, lessons that focus on recollection of facts rather than a negotiation of conceptual meaning arealso ineffective for enduring understanding. Plan instructional strategies that are student-centered and learning oriented.

The traditional “passive learner” paradigm is easier to overcome if preservice teachers are able to experience effective teachingduring their own K–16 experiences.

 

CONSIDER THIS

What do you think is the most damaging lesson-planning pitfall? Why?

 

 

 

 

 

  • Read Valerie’s case from the classroom found in section 8.6 in your textbook. 
    • Answer question number three: “Valerie claims to use three different planning models: direct instruction, inquiry based (specifically, the 5E model), and social interaction, depending on the day, the objective, and the activity. Critique her match of models with the lesson purpose. Offer your own examples of each of these models for a curricular area of your choice.”  (Hansen et al., 2015)

chapter 8.6

From the Desk of: Valerie

March 7

Hello Dr. Z.—

So, you want to know about lesson planning? Well, let me tell you—it isn’t always as easy or as logical as the textbooksmake it out to be. This is something I have had to learn the hard way—because with 35 squirmy eighth graders in eachof my science classes, many whose hormones are rising here in the spring and all—well, you just can’t afford to come toschool unprepared—and live to tell about it, that is. I can’t always think in the “heat of the battle.” I have to have therelevant vocabulary terms listed out, and at least the words I am going to use to explain them, or I end up getting my“mords wixed up!” Then I can relax and let the planned activities just flow. But, not just any activity—it has to relate towhat we are doing in science or they start to just “blow it off.”

So, I find lesson planning to be difficult, but necessary. I work mainly from the eighth-grade science syllabus and the unitplans that we put together with other science teachers from the district last fall. I developed a lesson plan form that Isaved as a template in Word, so it comes up each time as a blank document and it automatically saves to a differentname without locking up my original form. I plan for one week at a time—sometimes two, if I have the time, and try tomake sure I know what I am doing in general the next week by Friday of each week. That way I can enjoy the weekendmore, and not have that feeling of dread that used to hit on Sunday afternoon. Next year should be easier, since I willhave most of the details already developed, and can modify the lessons depending on the students and what I have towork with, instead of starting from scratch.

The models for lesson planning that we learned at university are useful, and I have tweaked them a bit to make themrelevant to my own teaching context. I know (and have been taught over and over again) that one plans from theobjectives and the assessment, and then develops the activities to match. While this works to keep me focused, I stillthink about the activity, or how to teach the objective, while planning the assessment, because for me it really is arecursive process. Like, how can you unpack a standard if you have no idea about what the student could be doing todemonstrate that understanding?

Another thing that makes planning easier for me is to get a weekly routine that I can use to structure the learningobjectives and assessment around. For example, Monday I introduce a new concept (or bring in new informationregarding a concept from the week before), and plan for a demonstration, some lecture, some discussion, and a jigsawgroup or two. So the learning objectives and assessments for that day focus on an NGSS disciplinary core idea, and theability to explain the concept in one’s own words. For example, the core idea for these next two weeks is:

Plate tectonics is the unifying theory that explains the past and current movements of the rocks at Earth’s surfaceand provides a framework for understanding its geologic history. (ESS2.B Grade 8 GBE)

My objective for Monday’s lesson was for the students to explain the terms fault and plate boundaries, to define thevarious types of faults, normal, reverse, and strike slip, and the various types of plate boundaries, divergent, convergent,and transform. On Tuesday, I scheduled a lab activity that investigated the core idea presented on Monday. So theobjectives and assessments related to science and engineering practices (from the NGSS) applied to the topic, likeconstructing explanations. We took pieces of foam blocks and cut them to represent the types of faults and faultboundaries, and discussed concepts such as extension, moving apart, down-dropped blocks, and devised explanations ofwhat happens when these faults move, as in an earthquake. Wednesdays are research days. We took the essentialquestions from this part of the unit, the observations from the lab reports, and working in teams (usually four)formulated a specific question and organized an Internet research strategy—using the laptop carts that are reserved onthat day. We started with a site that allowed the students to chart the movement of land masses to better understandplate tectonics, and then they developed their own questions to research from there. Thursday is model-planning day—the teams report to each other on the results of their research and develop one visual model (2D or 3D) per team ofwhat they found in their research. The models must depict the cross-cutting concepts associated with that standard. Forexample, in the current unit (plate tectonics), the concepts they must show are either a pattern (like a numericalrelationship) or a scale (some concepts are too small to see, and others occur too slowly; they must show what scalethey are using). On Friday, each team presents the visual model and everyone submits an individually written report onwhat was learned. When planning, I match up the objectives and assessment strategies to the activity type, and thenschedule that objective for the corresponding day.

Is this the best way to do it? I don’t know. In an ideal world, Internet research and labs would be more spontaneous,driven by “teachable moments” as they arise. But I can only schedule a set of laptops one day per week—they are sharedwith other classrooms. And the lab is only available one day per week—so I have to plan carefully. Not only that—I havetwo students with disabilities in the fourth-period class, and several students throughout the day who struggleacademically, and at least ten students scattered among the classes who are eager, interested, and clearly ready foradvanced work. So, within these activity-scheduled days, I can plan for some predictable differences in advance. Forinstance, I always post my notes, PowerPoints, video clips, and websites that explain the same or similar concepts as thebook chapter to Edmodo, our course LMS, so the students can view them at home ahead of time or after class. Thosewho are still learning academic English or who read slowly can use computer screen readers to go over the informationone more time. On Wednesday, research day, students who want to explore advanced concepts can do so. And I try tomix the groups up so that each is as balanced as possible with each group having a mix of abilities.

So what planning model do I use? That also depends on the day, the objective, and the activity. I think that in eighth-grade science, given the resources and schedule that I have to work with, disciplinary core ideas (from the NGSS) arebest introduced with a direct-instruction approach. This seems to be the most efficient for me. And it matches what Iknow about teaching content—you have to start somewhere with science concepts—read, or listen, or view a video clip.We still explore and wonder using this type of lesson—I always have them develop a prediction or pose questions. Nowthat’s a hard one. They are so accustomed to trying to figure out correct answers, it is really hard for them to ask arelevant question. On Tuesday and Wednesday, I definitely use a 5E plan, since it fits so well with science, and it is moreof an inquiry-based approach. The students are getting used to it; at first, they just wanted me to tell them the answers. Iguess I use a social-interaction approach on Thursday and Friday, since they are primarily working in groups and haveto figure out how to report their findings.

Gotta go—team planning meeting in five minutes—see you Friday and we will catch up.

—Valerie

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz

March 14

This week’s post from Valerie illustrates the thought processes that many novice teachers go through when planning.While she understands the value of lesson planning and the confidence it brings to implementation, she is surprised byhow much time it takes. Furthermore, when asked to analyze how she plans, she realizes that the linear processexplained in most textbooks is only part of the story. Like many other new teachers, Valerie plans with the content andan activity in mind, and then adapts it to make sure it aligns with the objective and assessment systems. At this point inher development as a teacher, she still has to make those connections explicit.

I noticed how her organizational schedule is really an attempt to reduce the cognitive load of planning. Given thecomplexities of the content, the student needs, and the limitations on resources, she is developing manageablestrategies that meet the needs of most of her students at the same time. The routines that she developed provide alogical structure for those strategies and allow her to concentrate on delivering the curriculum.

One place that has been especially helpful in instructional planning is an activity types taxonomy,http://activitytypes.wmwikis.net/HOME. This site lists three basic activity types for science: conceptual knowledgebuilding (such as read, attend to a demonstration, or discuss), procedural knowledge (such as practice, prepare, recorddata, or collect samples), and knowledge expression (such as write a report, create an image, develop a model, ordevelop a concept map). This site also offers a taxonomy of activity types for other subject areas, such as literacy,mathematics, music, science, social studies, visual arts—and more. A number of teachers have used this site to helpfocus their thinking in planning. In most cases, well-defined objectives and assessments can be interpreted as aligning toone or more of these activity types, and the suggestions can spark teacher thinking on appropriate activities.

I followed up with Valerie regarding the team meeting she was heading to. Her team has decided that next year, theywant to develop at least one thematic and interdisciplinary unit in the fall, and plan for one project-based unit in thespring. To help with the planning, they have decided to embark on a lesson study among the members of the team; theeighth-grade teachers of math, science, English, social studies, technology, and art. The purpose of the lesson study is tolearn something about the content of each other’s classes, and to identify places where the content could be integratedfor a theme or a project. For example, Valerie requires that the visual models her students produce use cross-cuttingconcepts identified in the standards, and she makes sure that she tries to connect to the state Common Core Standardsin ELA and Math as much as possible. She doesn’t always see the connections that could be made, however. In the platetectonics series of lesson plans, for example, visual models could be explained by using variables in a mathematicalproblem. The math teacher readily sees those connections, while it might take Valerie a bit longer, if at all, to discoverand add them to her lesson. So, the team is embarking on a lesson study to familiarize themselves with each other’scurriculum and ways of planning and structuring a lesson, in the hopes of generating some ideas for their goals for thefollowing year. And, guess who is presenting first!

—Celina Zwijacz, Ph.D.

 

Discussion Questions

    1. Visit the learning activity types wiki provided by the College of William and Mary School of Education, and reviewa set of activity types for one of the subject areas listed. (Go to http://activitytypes.wmwikis.net/HOME.) Discusspossible connections between this taxonomy of activities and the objectives and assessments of any plausible dailylesson plan. What descriptions would need to be added to assure an alignment of an activity with objective andassessment?

    1. The lesson-planning process described in this chapter is linear, but the process that Valerie and Dr. Z. speak ofdescribes a more recursive thought and action. What are your thoughts as you plan a lesson? Describe your mentalprocesses.

  1. Valerie claims to use three different planning models: direct instruction, inquiry based (specifically, the 5E model),and social interaction, depending on the day, the objective, and the activity. Critique her match of models with thelesson purpose. Offer your own examples of each of these models for a curricular area of your choice.

 

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July 1, 2023
    

An educator’s daily lesson plan is the most detailed and updated guide that they have to facilitate learning in their classroom. In essence, lesson planning is the educator’s opportunity to decide, in advance what curriculum to introduce, the instructional delivery method they will use, and how intended objectives will be assessed. After reading chapter 8, perform these two tasks.

  • Jones, Jones, and Vermette (2011) did a three year study of novice educators’ lesson planning practices to determine if patterns of common blunders may exist in their design process. 
    • Discuss the six most common pitfalls that research uncovered that novice educators make when planning lessons.

8.5 Common Lesson-Planning Pitfalls

We will end the chapter by discussing some of the most common pitfalls that teachers make when designing lesson plans.These pitfalls apply to all the lesson plan formats discussed in this chapter. Jones, Jones, and Vermette (2011) conducted athree-year study examining novice teachers’ lesson planning and implementation to determine the six most common lesson-planning blunders. Knowing what the most common lesson plan impediments are will help you navigate around them. You maynotice that these are similar to the pitfalls to writing instructional objectives, first described in Chapter 3; many of the sameprinciples apply.

Unclear Learning Objective

This lesson-planning misstep happens when teachers focus on what content they will cover in the lesson instead of focusing onthe learning outcomes the students will have because of exposure to that content. Teachers who focus on learning outcomesassure that the lesson is learning-centered, and eliminate the difficulties of determining whether the lesson is teacher-centeredor student-centered. How will you know what you want students to learn? It is stated in your instructional objectives. Toovercome this pitfall, write the learning outcome from the student’s perspective. For example, “At the end of this lesson, I canidentify five types of carbohydrates” or “I can compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.”

Assessment of Understanding Not Administered

New teachers, overwhelmed with classroom-management issues, administration tasks, and extensive content to cover,sometime continue teaching without ever stopping to see what (if anything) students have learned. In many cases, discussion isthe sole way to evaluate student thinking. While this strategy is a useful formative assessment, without any tangible evidence ofstudent learning, there is no real accountability or indication that students have learned anything at all. To overcome thispitfall, consider authentic assessment as a strategy so that students create a learning product that is evidenced in an active andvisible process that helps students link content learned to the intended learning objectives.

Failure to Collect Multiple Formative Assessments During Lesson

To provide clues to students’ current level of understanding, teachers should use multiple means of collecting informationabout students’ thinking throughout the lesson. They can then use this information to differentiate instruction to meet learners’exact needs. A strong focus on evidence creation during the lesson will help document student achievement.

To overcome this pitfall, consider interspersing throughout the lesson plan Wiggins and McTighe’s (2011) deconstruction ofunderstanding into six facets: explain, interpret, apply, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge.

Assessment Fails to Match the Learning Objective

By mismatching the assessment of learning with the instructional objective, you will never know if the objective was met. Thispitfall can be tricky because teachers assume that students who are engaged in the assigned task will automatically gain thecognitive attribute intended.

To overcome this pitfall, consider using learning targets and the backward design process (Stiggins, 2008; Wiggins & McTighe,2011) and begin lesson planning with “identify desired results.” Rather than beginning lesson planning with a set of topics youneed to cover and then, after the fact, creating an assessment to match the topics, begin with the walk-away knowledge, skills,or dispositions you want students to have and then schedule activities that will lead to these take-aways. (For more informationon the backward planning process, see Chapter 4.)

Lesson Plan Lacks an Engaging Start

Beginning a lesson with a quick “hook” with little or no meaningful student engagement leads to students being frustrated andunfocused rather than motivated to learn. Failure to start the lesson effectively leads to classroom-management issues,confusion, and off-task behaviors.

To overcome this pitfall, take the beginning of the lesson time to create conditions in which the students can play with ideas tohelp assimilate new concepts into their existing schema. This activity may take a longer or shorter amount of time dependingon the discovery task, level of students’ motivation, or depth of prior knowledge.

Students Are Passive Recipients of Knowledge

Lessons that only involve PowerPoint presentations or teacher lectures in which students sit quietly and listen have beenshown to be ineffective. Likewise, lessons that focus on recollection of facts rather than a negotiation of conceptual meaning arealso ineffective for enduring understanding. Plan instructional strategies that are student-centered and learning oriented.

The traditional “passive learner” paradigm is easier to overcome if preservice teachers are able to experience effective teachingduring their own K–16 experiences.

 

CONSIDER THIS

What do you think is the most damaging lesson-planning pitfall? Why?

 

 

 

 

 

  • Read Valerie’s case from the classroom found in section 8.6 in your textbook. 
    • Answer question number three: “Valerie claims to use three different planning models: direct instruction, inquiry based (specifically, the 5E model), and social interaction, depending on the day, the objective, and the activity. Critique her match of models with the lesson purpose. Offer your own examples of each of these models for a curricular area of your choice.”  (Hansen et al., 2015)

chapter 8.6

From the Desk of: Valerie

March 7

Hello Dr. Z.—

So, you want to know about lesson planning? Well, let me tell you—it isn’t always as easy or as logical as the textbooksmake it out to be. This is something I have had to learn the hard way—because with 35 squirmy eighth graders in eachof my science classes, many whose hormones are rising here in the spring and all—well, you just can’t afford to come toschool unprepared—and live to tell about it, that is. I can’t always think in the “heat of the battle.” I have to have therelevant vocabulary terms listed out, and at least the words I am going to use to explain them, or I end up getting my“mords wixed up!” Then I can relax and let the planned activities just flow. But, not just any activity—it has to relate towhat we are doing in science or they start to just “blow it off.”

So, I find lesson planning to be difficult, but necessary. I work mainly from the eighth-grade science syllabus and the unitplans that we put together with other science teachers from the district last fall. I developed a lesson plan form that Isaved as a template in Word, so it comes up each time as a blank document and it automatically saves to a differentname without locking up my original form. I plan for one week at a time—sometimes two, if I have the time, and try tomake sure I know what I am doing in general the next week by Friday of each week. That way I can enjoy the weekendmore, and not have that feeling of dread that used to hit on Sunday afternoon. Next year should be easier, since I willhave most of the details already developed, and can modify the lessons depending on the students and what I have towork with, instead of starting from scratch.

The models for lesson planning that we learned at university are useful, and I have tweaked them a bit to make themrelevant to my own teaching context. I know (and have been taught over and over again) that one plans from theobjectives and the assessment, and then develops the activities to match. While this works to keep me focused, I stillthink about the activity, or how to teach the objective, while planning the assessment, because for me it really is arecursive process. Like, how can you unpack a standard if you have no idea about what the student could be doing todemonstrate that understanding?

Another thing that makes planning easier for me is to get a weekly routine that I can use to structure the learningobjectives and assessment around. For example, Monday I introduce a new concept (or bring in new informationregarding a concept from the week before), and plan for a demonstration, some lecture, some discussion, and a jigsawgroup or two. So the learning objectives and assessments for that day focus on an NGSS disciplinary core idea, and theability to explain the concept in one’s own words. For example, the core idea for these next two weeks is:

Plate tectonics is the unifying theory that explains the past and current movements of the rocks at Earth’s surfaceand provides a framework for understanding its geologic history. (ESS2.B Grade 8 GBE)

My objective for Monday’s lesson was for the students to explain the terms fault and plate boundaries, to define thevarious types of faults, normal, reverse, and strike slip, and the various types of plate boundaries, divergent, convergent,and transform. On Tuesday, I scheduled a lab activity that investigated the core idea presented on Monday. So theobjectives and assessments related to science and engineering practices (from the NGSS) applied to the topic, likeconstructing explanations. We took pieces of foam blocks and cut them to represent the types of faults and faultboundaries, and discussed concepts such as extension, moving apart, down-dropped blocks, and devised explanations ofwhat happens when these faults move, as in an earthquake. Wednesdays are research days. We took the essentialquestions from this part of the unit, the observations from the lab reports, and working in teams (usually four)formulated a specific question and organized an Internet research strategy—using the laptop carts that are reserved onthat day. We started with a site that allowed the students to chart the movement of land masses to better understandplate tectonics, and then they developed their own questions to research from there. Thursday is model-planning day—the teams report to each other on the results of their research and develop one visual model (2D or 3D) per team ofwhat they found in their research. The models must depict the cross-cutting concepts associated with that standard. Forexample, in the current unit (plate tectonics), the concepts they must show are either a pattern (like a numericalrelationship) or a scale (some concepts are too small to see, and others occur too slowly; they must show what scalethey are using). On Friday, each team presents the visual model and everyone submits an individually written report onwhat was learned. When planning, I match up the objectives and assessment strategies to the activity type, and thenschedule that objective for the corresponding day.

Is this the best way to do it? I don’t know. In an ideal world, Internet research and labs would be more spontaneous,driven by “teachable moments” as they arise. But I can only schedule a set of laptops one day per week—they are sharedwith other classrooms. And the lab is only available one day per week—so I have to plan carefully. Not only that—I havetwo students with disabilities in the fourth-period class, and several students throughout the day who struggleacademically, and at least ten students scattered among the classes who are eager, interested, and clearly ready foradvanced work. So, within these activity-scheduled days, I can plan for some predictable differences in advance. Forinstance, I always post my notes, PowerPoints, video clips, and websites that explain the same or similar concepts as thebook chapter to Edmodo, our course LMS, so the students can view them at home ahead of time or after class. Thosewho are still learning academic English or who read slowly can use computer screen readers to go over the informationone more time. On Wednesday, research day, students who want to explore advanced concepts can do so. And I try tomix the groups up so that each is as balanced as possible with each group having a mix of abilities.

So what planning model do I use? That also depends on the day, the objective, and the activity. I think that in eighth-grade science, given the resources and schedule that I have to work with, disciplinary core ideas (from the NGSS) arebest introduced with a direct-instruction approach. This seems to be the most efficient for me. And it matches what Iknow about teaching content—you have to start somewhere with science concepts—read, or listen, or view a video clip.We still explore and wonder using this type of lesson—I always have them develop a prediction or pose questions. Nowthat’s a hard one. They are so accustomed to trying to figure out correct answers, it is really hard for them to ask arelevant question. On Tuesday and Wednesday, I definitely use a 5E plan, since it fits so well with science, and it is moreof an inquiry-based approach. The students are getting used to it; at first, they just wanted me to tell them the answers. Iguess I use a social-interaction approach on Thursday and Friday, since they are primarily working in groups and haveto figure out how to report their findings.

Gotta go—team planning meeting in five minutes—see you Friday and we will catch up.

—Valerie

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz

March 14

This week’s post from Valerie illustrates the thought processes that many novice teachers go through when planning.While she understands the value of lesson planning and the confidence it brings to implementation, she is surprised byhow much time it takes. Furthermore, when asked to analyze how she plans, she realizes that the linear processexplained in most textbooks is only part of the story. Like many other new teachers, Valerie plans with the content andan activity in mind, and then adapts it to make sure it aligns with the objective and assessment systems. At this point inher development as a teacher, she still has to make those connections explicit.

I noticed how her organizational schedule is really an attempt to reduce the cognitive load of planning. Given thecomplexities of the content, the student needs, and the limitations on resources, she is developing manageablestrategies that meet the needs of most of her students at the same time. The routines that she developed provide alogical structure for those strategies and allow her to concentrate on delivering the curriculum.

One place that has been especially helpful in instructional planning is an activity types taxonomy,http://activitytypes.wmwikis.net/HOME. This site lists three basic activity types for science: conceptual knowledgebuilding (such as read, attend to a demonstration, or discuss), procedural knowledge (such as practice, prepare, recorddata, or collect samples), and knowledge expression (such as write a report, create an image, develop a model, ordevelop a concept map). This site also offers a taxonomy of activity types for other subject areas, such as literacy,mathematics, music, science, social studies, visual arts—and more. A number of teachers have used this site to helpfocus their thinking in planning. In most cases, well-defined objectives and assessments can be interpreted as aligning toone or more of these activity types, and the suggestions can spark teacher thinking on appropriate activities.

I followed up with Valerie regarding the team meeting she was heading to. Her team has decided that next year, theywant to develop at least one thematic and interdisciplinary unit in the fall, and plan for one project-based unit in thespring. To help with the planning, they have decided to embark on a lesson study among the members of the team; theeighth-grade teachers of math, science, English, social studies, technology, and art. The purpose of the lesson study is tolearn something about the content of each other’s classes, and to identify places where the content could be integratedfor a theme or a project. For example, Valerie requires that the visual models her students produce use cross-cuttingconcepts identified in the standards, and she makes sure that she tries to connect to the state Common Core Standardsin ELA and Math as much as possible. She doesn’t always see the connections that could be made, however. In the platetectonics series of lesson plans, for example, visual models could be explained by using variables in a mathematicalproblem. The math teacher readily sees those connections, while it might take Valerie a bit longer, if at all, to discoverand add them to her lesson. So, the team is embarking on a lesson study to familiarize themselves with each other’scurriculum and ways of planning and structuring a lesson, in the hopes of generating some ideas for their goals for thefollowing year. And, guess who is presenting first!

—Celina Zwijacz, Ph.D.

 

Discussion Questions

    1. Visit the learning activity types wiki provided by the College of William and Mary School of Education, and reviewa set of activity types for one of the subject areas listed. (Go to http://activitytypes.wmwikis.net/HOME.) Discusspossible connections between this taxonomy of activities and the objectives and assessments of any plausible dailylesson plan. What descriptions would need to be added to assure an alignment of an activity with objective andassessment?

    1. The lesson-planning process described in this chapter is linear, but the process that Valerie and Dr. Z. speak ofdescribes a more recursive thought and action. What are your thoughts as you plan a lesson? Describe your mentalprocesses.

  1. Valerie claims to use three different planning models: direct instruction, inquiry based (specifically, the 5E model),and social interaction, depending on the day, the objective, and the activity. Critique her match of models with thelesson purpose. Offer your own examples of each of these models for a curricular area of your choice.

 

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